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Report Overview
The form and shape that cities and suburban areas take in the next several decades will affect future mobility and air quality in metropolitan areas. A growing body of research indicates that certain land use and transportation strategies can lead to a reduction in vehicle trips and vehicle miles traveled by allowing a shift to other modes of travel, especially in congested urban and suburban areas. Such strategies can make it easier for people to walk, bicycle or use transit service (rail or bus), rather than needing to rely primarily on automobiles for mobility.
Environments that are more conducive to such "alternative" transportation modes can also create more "livable" communities -- communities with reduced congestion, increased personal mobility, and cleaner, healthier air.
To gain a better understanding of the relative value of transportation and land use strategies in reducing vehicle use and related emissions, the California Air Resources Board (ARB) funded a research study entitled "Transportation-Related Land Use Strategies to Minimize Motor Vehicle Emissions: An Indirect Source Research Study." It was conducted by a team of consultants lead by JHK and Associates, a transportation consulting firm. Significant input was obtained from members of a statewide advisory committee convened for this project that included representatives of local, regional and state agencies, private businesses, and environmental groups. The final report is intended to provide information to local governments, air quality agencies, planning organizations, community groups, designers, builders, and others interested in land use, transportation, and/or air quality.
Chapters 1 and 2 provide an overview and summary of the project and how it was conducted. Chapter 3 reports the results of an extensive literature review regarding the potential effectiveness of particular land use strategies in reducing auto reliance. Chapter 4 summarizes land use and travel data from a variety of communities, both within and outside of California. It also reports the results of a recent study that evaluated land use and travel characteristics of 28 case study communities in California that was conducted by John Holtzclaw. This study found a significant correlation between travel behavior and the quantified community characteristics of the neighborhoods studied, such as density, mixture of uses, transit service, interconnected streets, and pedestrian accessibility.
Based on this study and other available information, the project team developed a set of eight "performance goals" for urban, suburban, and rural communities in terms of annual per-household driving rates and related motor vehicle emissions. These suggested performance goals, and the method used to develop them, are presented in Chapter 5. It is estimated that achieving these goals in suburban communities could reduce annual per-household rates of driving and associated ROG and NOx emissions by approximately 10 to 20 percent (as compared to more auto-oriented suburban areas). In urban areas, per-household driving rates and related emissions could be reduced by at least 20 percent, as compared to areas of a city that do not have high-quality transit service or good pedestrian accessibility.
Chapter 6 recommends a set of transportation-related land use strategies that are designed to assist communities achieve the suggested performance goals. They are meant to be implemented in coordination with a "multi-modal" transportation system that includes transit and pedestrian facilities. These strategies are summarized below:
- Strong Downtowns.
A strong commercial and cultural center can become a focal point for a regional transit system and also facilitates pedestrian travel.
- Concentrated Activity Centers.
Combining higher-density development into concentrated nodes increases opportunities for providing and using more efficient transit service and also facilitates pedestrian travel.
- Mixed-Use Development.
Locating different types of compatible land uses in close proximity to one another or within a single building can result in higher levels of walking, as compared to segregated single-use projects.
- Infill and Densification.
Encouraging the infill, redevelopment, and reuse of vacant or underutilized parcels within developed areas also supports the efficient provision and use of transit and increased walking rates.
- Increased Density Near Transit Stations and Corridors.
Intensifying land uses within 1/4 to 1/2 mile walking distance of existing or planned high-capacity transit stations and corridors (bus or rail) encourages higher levels of transit ridership.
- Pedestrian/Bicycle Facilities.
Providing good pedestrian accessibility supports the other strategies and can reduce vehicle travel. This strategy includes: adequate and direct sidewalks and paths, protection from fast vehicular traffic, pedestrian-activated traffic signals, traffic calming features, and other amenities.
- Interconnected Travel Networks.
Ensuring direct routes for vehicles, pedestrians, and bicycles can result in slower vehicle speeds while maintaining travel times that are comparable to typical hierarchical arterial street patterns.
- Strategic Parking Facilities.
Parking supplies should be adjusted to reflect increased rates of transit use, walking, and bicycling that result from implementing the strategies listed above. The amount and cost of parking should vary according to the type and location of land use.
The air quality benefits that may result from implementing these strategies depend on a number of factors, including whether a community is urban, suburban, or exurban. To address the differences between communities, the report presents three distinct strategy packages - one set for urban areas (Table 6-1); a set for suburban communities (Table 6-2); and one for exurban areas (Table 6-3). These recommendations are designed to assist communities achieve the performance goals presented in Chapter 5. The tables include specific details about the strategies, including densities and mixtures of uses, along with accompanying levels of transit service, pedestrian facilities, and other supportive factors.
To assist with the implementation of the strategies, Chapter 7 presents an extensive list of mechanisms that can be used by local governments, community groups, developers, and others. Many of these implementation tools are already available to communities. They include: local government plans, policies, documents, administrative actions, organizational tools, resources, and monitoring methods. Examples of local programs and projects that have been successfully implemented are also provided.
Please note:
The Internet version of this report contains seven chapters. However, the appendices and several tables and figures are not included. (The Table of Contents available in PDF indicates what is and is not included.) If you would like the complete printed version of the report, and you live in California, you may contact the Transportation Strategies Group, California Air Resources Board, at (916) 323-0439; fax (916) 322-3646 . (Please provide your name and mailing address along with the request.) If you do not live or work in California, you may order the report from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). The report publication number is PB9611-5704. NTIS may be contacted by calling (703) 487-4650, and the email address is orders@ntis.fedworld.gov, or you may visit their Web site at http://www.ntis.gov.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract #92-348, "Transportation-Related Land Use Strategies to Minimize Motor Vehicle Emissions: An Indirect Source Research Study," by JHK & Associates, Inc., et.al., under the sponsorship of the California Air Resources Board.
The statements and conclusions in this report are those of the Contractor and not necessarily those of the California Air Resources Board. The mention of any commercial products, their source or their use in connection with material reported herein is not to be construed as either an actual or implied endorsement of such products.
